(This is a corollary of the fact that one can look at most photographs and see some of its subjects aesthetic properties.) No doubt this might happen (though it is to change the example). Matthews, Patricia. But that cerulean is the (true) color of my tie is not itself manifest but needs inferring from the fact that it is appearing this way to the right kind of observer in the right kind of conditions. that it is good, that the dishes compliment each other, that this is spicy, and that tastes of ginger (or is gingery). (So, if one hears bells in a passage this is because the passage has a bell-like sound.) 1998.Moderate Moralism versus Moderate Autonomism. British Journal of Aesthetics 38:41924. Guiding readers through major problems, issues and debates in aesthetics, this is a bias-free introduction for students studying the philosophy of art for the first time. Or, does it require more extensive and more strenuous immersions with multiple perspectives that cover a stretch of countryside? So, for example, some might hear Schuberts Death of the Maiden quartet as one of the most powerful expressions of grief-stricken sadness among musical works, while someone else might think it overly dramatic or insufficiently subtle, features which lessen its emotional impact. New York: St. Martins Press. Art and the Aesthetic: An Institutional Analysis. Let me suggest three routes to identifying these. The Iliad gives us access to conceptions of a variety of value-related matters and the cognitive insight it gives in virtue of this makes it a better work and even enhances our aesthetic engagement with it, but it just does not follow that it does this in virtue of a moral flaw. If it does, it must do so on somewhat different grounds, since these other models require no pretense on our part. Couldnt we arrive at the conceptions given to us in works in other ways, and, if so, doesnt art become replaceable? Lets suppose it is. Though the three models mentioned so far tend to emphasize this kind of appreciation, it is not so clear that any of them make the formalists claim that nature appreciation should be confined to the appreciation of such properties. A somewhat different line is developed by Gaut (1998). That is perfectly compatible with the idea that aesthetic experience is, by definition, valued (valuable) for its own sake. It is indisputable that he might get such benefits there, and that if he believed that he was, he would have no reason to return to looking at paintings. The intermediate view recognizes that actual intentions are one factor among several that fix meaning and that meanings can sometimes be unintended in virtue of the operation of these other factors. First consider the plant, purple loosestrife. But notice it is equally well chosen by both the object and environmental models. 139 about the ontology of art and about metaphysical issues generally. When this is so, and when a listener hears E with the conviction that this is intended, she also has the well-justified conviction that she hears the expression of E. To summarize: the two views share in common that there is such a thing as hearing E in the music. Words like photography, music, and painting can be used to refer either to a medium or to an art form, and according to my distinction, they are being used to refer to different things depending on which is meant. One is not forced to this view. An order (someones meal) will provide a variety of looks, tastes, smells, textures, to some extent presented sequentially (the different courses), to some extent presented simultaneously (the different parts of a single course). It is knowledge of different environments, of systems and elements within them. . CHAPTER ELEVEN Artistic Value Essentialism/Antiessentialism Willem de Koonings abstract work Untitled III (1977) consists of numerous irregular, patches of paint: whites, blood reds, dark browns, bilious greens, and flesh tones seemingly smeared on the canvass, one patch often overlaying and mixing with another. It is best for now to live with this vagueness in the distinction between aesthetic and nonaesthetic properties because further progress in identifying the range of aesthetic properties is only possible after we have investigated some additional issues. The other recognizes that such and such is true in the fiction. Instead, there are still mainly competing hypotheses, and anyone who appeals to cognitive science is making bets on which of these will turn out to be the winners. The definition of literature will be briefly explored. Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 183202. Malcolm Budd (1996) argues that to properly appreciate nature one has to appreciate it as nature, and to do this one has to conceive of the object of appreciation as some natural thing (such as a snowfield). A more subtle issue is whether there are some aesthetic experiences that are like the constituent items discussed above: items of no value in themselves, but valuable only as constituents of something larger. With this knowledge in hand, does our experience of sunsets change, and would this change justify altering our judgment of their beauty? The immersion model, though not foreign to views like Carlsons, is most closely associated with Arnold Berleants (1992) aesthetics of engagement. 7. It sees art through the prism of the eighteenth-century system of the fine arts. This volume is a fascinating introduction to the core themes and basic methods of aesthetics and the philosophy of art. They attempted to characterize the judgments that an object is beautiful and the kind of value being ascribed to objects by such judgments. 2001. . However, this is beside the point if the cognitive value of art lies in providing new ways of thinking or perceiving or bringing home to us the significance of already familiar ways (Graham 1997). The assumption underlying the recognitional view is that, while it is wrong to simply identify a work or passage being expressive of an emotion e with our hearing, seeing, or inferring e in it, understanding the latter is crucial for understanding the former because such apprehension as if will enter into a correct account of expressiveness. The more complex view allows for different valid experiences, but if I say that your experience is not valid and you say that it is, we are disagreeing, and one of us may be wrong. Finally, there are objects that have amorphous, constantly changing shapes or no shape at all, such as the sky, which cannot be depicted by means of an outline shape. There are two versions of this view: the literal version and the as-if version. It sometimes claims that artworks all belong to one type of entity: aesthetic objects. This will supply many concrete examples and a variety of views about what ought to be appreciated in nature: views about which experiences and which properties of natural environments are crucial to this appreciation. The chapter begins with an overview of the history of the analytic method in aesthetics, followed by philosophers recent formulations of the analytic enterprise. I am less explicit here in distinguishing among different approaches to denying (2), because what they have in common is more important for my purposes. 2000. 1999. The proprietary right condition looks rather ad hoc, especially since it does not hold in general. As long as the achievement of such ethical value is intrinsic to the aims of these works, ethical value contributes to artistic value. Its main idea is that we should appreciate nature as an artwork. References 295 . There is another, equally important question about the objectivity of this value. Argues for the diversity of artistic value. One might greatly admire the way Henry James realizes this aim in the novel: the characters he creates, the choices he gives them, the society they inhabit. Is it nonsensical to attempt to conceive such possibilities? M. Hjort and S. Laver. We also respond emotionally to fictions, which generates the paradox of fiction. 3. Is it more like a musical work or a painting? Finally, and, it would seem most importantly, should we opt for realism or antirealism (in whatever version we suppose to be best)? Hence the identity of the artist isnt essential to the identity of the work (Currie 1989). ), then physical objects can express human intentions. So the possibility of depicting a two-dimensional object requires an emendation of the seeing-in view (or some formulations of it) rather than a rejection of that view. One suggestion is that these are properties that critics refer to when evaluating artworks. Seeing-In This chapter will be concerned with perceptual/experiential theories and examine whether they are adequate to define depiction and explain its important characteristics. For the critic of antirealism, this approach doesnt go far enough. . All buildings will have such features, so they will be subject to aesthetic appreciation and evaluation. Cleveland and New York: World Publishing. What is the best way to characterize the relationship between the aesthetic value and the artistic value of works? (The story is more complex for the strip mall, but leave that aside). This is what I see, ignoring that what is responsible for these colors is a winter field covered with snow reflecting the sunset. One would be the existence of traditional artistic forms such as painting, carved or molded forms, music and dance, poetry and stories. The second counterexample is the case where the artist intends W to mean p, it is known that the artist has this intention, but W does not mean p but q. And, it might be claimed, that food, despite the existence in people of nonrational preferences for some items over others, can also provide aesthetic experience. . Unfortunately, it is just as plain that the conclusion does not follow. Suppose there was a pill that induced a fine aesthetic experience. Artists typically craft, or at least select, the individual item that is the artwork, being guided in either case by intentions toward that item. Initially we answered this question in terms of the role these (purported) properties play in aesthetic evaluation, but ultimately we did so in terms of its being a property related in the right way to aesthetic experience. When the emotional quality is an intrinsic part of what makes the work tick, then it will also be reasonable to hypothesize that the quality is intended. The same could be said about a similar criticism made by Anderson and Dean (1998, 159) using the whaling information supplied in Herman Melvilles Moby Dick. 3. New York: Harcourt, Brace. Thus morally flawed works can afford valuable knowledge or understanding. These aspects of recent art history reflect underlying issues that have always been with us. We must know what it is like to experience them. The modern art novel (from the eighteenth century to the present) is perhaps one type of work where a version of the affective response argument works. This is actually a double distortion. The coherence of Dodds view depends on whether something can be a symbol tied to a certain community before the symbol is used by the community or even before the existence of the community itself. Given this usage, aesthetics is one thing, the philosophy of art is another, though this is not to deny that some conception of aesthetic value will play an important, but not defining, role in the philosophy of art. She insists one must look at a building to know that it is neo-gothic, but its plausible that I can also learn this fact from a guidebook or another reliable third-person source. (Lets shelve a possible worry about how typical members of a kind are identified as members of that kind in the first place.) We dont imagine ourselves hearing about Anna taking a lover; we simply imagine Anna taking a lover or someone telling of Anna taking a lover, but not telling us. Similarly, when the expression of a morally praiseworthy attitude does nothing to promote virtue, ethically acceptable behavior, or the growth of moral understanding, but, for example, pedantically states the obvious, we should not assign to such an expression any positive moral value. How are genuine functions of art distinguished from accidental functions (e.g., using sculptures as a doorstops or paintings for insulation) and extrinsic functions (e.g., using art as an investment)? While it is true that we are not appreciating the snowfield as a snowfield, we are appreciating it as something truly contained in nature: shape and color. In particular, we will look at some recent arguments for a positive answer to this question. But they also provide opportunities for many additional forms of appreciation. If we abstract from the particulars of Dickies two definitions, one can discern a common strategy that gives rise to a set of common problems. This should not be confused with perceiving that an object has a property (perceiving that a large blue area occupies the upper left portion of the painting). Alternatively, suppose that a print enriched with previously cut scenes happened to be the one audiences favor, and some of these scenes crucially shape critical reception and common perception of the film over the years. Formalism Developing alongside expression theories of art were formalist theories. Bell famously claims that to appreciate a work of art we need bring with us nothing from life, no knowledge of its ideas . 2001. In reply, recall that such an understanding was not implausible for poetry. We shouldnt say so any more than we should think that people of an earlier age could not see the beauty of the human body because they radically misunderstood the nature of the body. However, we have yet to determine the force of this objection. Are there circumstances in which the means by which a work is produced bear on the ethical value of the work? . 298 References Hume, David. The first point, illustrated by the readymades as well as such works as Warhols Brillo Boxes, is that art and nonart can be perceptually indistinguishable and so cannot be marked off from each other by exhibited properties. Since this is so, persuasive examples are crucial to making this argument work. So the thought that such 28 Chapter Two appreciation might be too selective should be rejected. Philadelphia: Temple University Press. Many architects work in the medium without intending to produce, and, indeed, without producing, artworks. Knowing that a pink trillium flower is a later stage in the blooming of a white trillium makes one more appreciative of it, though I doubt knowing the chemical basis of the change enhances appreciation. The things we refer to are distinguished from others in virtue of their properties or characteristics, but nothing can have properties unless it exists in the first place. The meaning of a work could hardly be identical to an unrealized intention. There are other considerations that suggest architecture is indeed an art form. Benefits, by definition, make a work instrumentally valuable. But it is the mismatch between house and setting, a mismatch that to a lesser degree applies to the whole subdivision, that is most striking. On the other hand, the situation is quite different if we consider the same work in the context of Platos Athens. This book will examine all three conceptions of the discipline of aesthetics, but let me say up front, that it is aligned with, and will argue for, the last approach. Given these different reactions, it is not clear what, beyond the reactions themselves, should guide us in making a judgment of beauty about loosestrife and sunsets. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. He tries to make a case that various art formsliterature, painting, and musicpresent such a world. Loves Knowledge. This basic style of argument can either take a factual (prevents) or normative (ought to prevent) form.7 It also has a stronger or weaker form depending on whether it claims that the said feature is always or only sometimes an aesthetic defect in virtue of always or only sometimes preventing the required response or making the work unworthy of it. 1979. Shusterman, Richard. 1996. Epilogue: the evidence of things not seen. 3. Hence, the persona view better accommodates the idea that, for music, expression is something more heard than inferred. A fourth issue derives from the fact that artworks typically mean something, in a very broad sense of that term. Call this subjectivism. If the make-believe view is going to successfully elucidate seeing-in, it must be successful in its own terms as an account of depiction. It is the imaginative response that enables me to immerse and sometimes lose myself in the fiction, while it is the recognitional response that helps me to keep track of the plot, the characters, and salient bits of narrative that lead on to critical reflections about themes and symbols that suggest the underlying import of the work. Thus The Jungle condemns the practices of the American meat industry, Uncle Toms Cabin condemns the practice of slavery, and Germinal condemns the treatment of coal miners in nineteenth-century France. We also think that its appropriate to design sports cars in such a way that expresses the machines speed and maneuverability. However, lets suppose that the novel makes inevitable Isabels choice: that it represents a system of values in which this is the right choice, and one of the aims of the novel that we admire is that it allows us to see how a commitment to this flawed set of values could make sense. This is the ideal case for the integral aim argument, but it has the same problem as the cognitive insight arguments. To put it in Kantian terms, it does not distinguish judgments of agreeableness from judgments of beauty. The other approach denied (2). Call this the object model. These are aesthetic properties, it is claimed, and appreciating the work for possessing them is intrinsic to appreciating them as art. This challenge concerns the way we value objects of aesthetic judgments. This latter view is explicitly endorsed in Lamarque and Olsen (1994, 44956). The problem with this move is that it just changes the subject from an attempt to figure out why we classify objects as art to a mere stipulation that something is art if it is an aesthetic object. I choose ethicism to characterize the position since it is the simpler nomenclature. While it is recognized in these writings that a painting or sculpture can be beautiful, they are not the 1 2 Chapter One clearest examples of beauty or the most beautiful things. If I imagine that I am being told a factual account where monsters threaten people and I am spatiotemporally distant from these events, it is plausible that I would not imagine being threatened by the monsters. 13. He does acknowledge that one aspect of the complex experience might be emphasized at the expense of the other (Wollheim1987, 47) so that one is much more focused on the surface rather than the representational content or vice versa. Since we are not interested in the qualities of the toaster for its own sake or for the sake of a payoff intrinsic to the experience (such as pleasure), this is not an aesthetic experience, according to the minimal view. But both are taking in the same properties of the painting and thereby noticing the same formal structures and expressive properties. Hence, constructivism is always incompatible with at least some of the theses held by contextualism as well as with essentialism. 1994. Again, there are problems: the problem of vacuity and the problem of diversity. Beryl Lang. Unfortunately, its possible to think of counterexamples to identifying what is distinctive to pictures (Goldman 2003, 2003; Lopes 1996, 5576). One is sensuous, pleasurable, and possibly meditative. It exhibits or makes manifest the property. Some people think that what Peter is doing is best characterized as attempting to grasp or discover certain truths about the play (Beardsley 1970; Carroll 2001b; S. Davies 1998; Hirsch 1967; Levinson 1996; Stecker 1997, 2003; Wollheim 1980).
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